MENINGITIS

Meningitis is the inflammation of the coverings around the brain and  spinal cord.It is mainly caused due to bacterial and viral infections thus the meningitis is of two types  

• Viral meningitis fairly common
• Bacterial meningitis which is not common but very severe

CAUSES FOR MENINGITIS?

• May be caused by virus, bacteria, other organisms and due to some medicines which is very rare
• The germs that cause meningitis can be spread from person to person

SYMPTOMS:

• A stiff and painful neck
• fever
• headache
• vomiting
• seizures
• photo phobia (intolerance to bright light)
• phonophobia (intolerance to loud noises)

HOW IT IS DIAGONISED
FOR  any patient who is suspected of having meningitis ,it is important to perform a lumbar puncture, in which spinal fluid known as CSF is collected for testing. Tests that may be done include

• Blood culture
• chest X-Ray
• CSF examination for cell count,glucose,and protiens
• CT scan of head
• Gram stain

TREATMENT
Bacterial or severe viral meningitis may require treatment in a hospital including

• ANTIBIOTICS are given through vein but only when it is Bacterial meningitis else the usage of antibiotics when they are not needed may cause drug resistance
• CORTICOSTEROIDS medicines such as  dexamethasone may be given in order to reduce pressure within the brain
• Measures such as ACETAMINOPHEN is given in order to reduce fever
• medicines such as PHENOBARBITAL OR DILANTIN can be given to reduce seizures
• Oxygen Therapy may be given if the patient have trouble breathing and to increase the amount of oxygen in all parts of the body

HIV/ AIDS

Human Immuno Deficiency virus infection/ acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/ AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by Human Immunodeficiency virus(HIV)

TRANSMISSION:

• HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated blood transfusion and hypodermic needles,and from mother to child during pregnancy,delivery or breast feeding
• some body fluids such as saliva and tears do not transmit HIV
• prevention of HIV infection primarily through safe sex and needle exchange programs is a key strategy to control the disease

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:

• The PATHOPHYSIOLOGY of aids is complex.
• ultimately HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4+ T cells.
• This weakens the immune system and allows opportunistic infection(infections caused by pathogens).
• Tcells are essential to the immune response and without them the body cannot fight infections (or) kill cancerous cells.
• thus weakening of CD4 T cells mainly includes the function of HIV virus

DIAGNOSIS:

HIV infection is commonly diagnosed by blood tests. there are three main types of tests that are commonly used

1. HIV antibody test
2. RNA tests
3. combination test that detects both antibodies and a piece of the virus called P24 protien

These are the referred symptoms for aids and the details are as follows:

• ENCEPHALITIS is an acute inflammation of brain which can be observed by noticing the patient in a confused state and can be diagnosed by testing the brain
• MENINGITIS is the inflammation of the protective membranes of brain and spinal cord
• RETINITIS is the viral infection of retina which results in blurred vision and blindness
• PNEUMOCYSTIS pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by yeast like fungus and mostly effects the condition of lungs
• esophagitis is the infection of esophagus

The most commonly used medication for aids is

Brand Name	Drug Names (INN)	Date of FDA Approval	Company
Combivir	zidovudine + lamivudine	September 26, 1997	GlaxoSmithKline
Trizivir	abacavir + zidovudine + lamivudine	November 15, 2000	GlaxoSmithKline
Kaletra	lopinavir + ritonavir	September 15, 2000	Abbott Laboratories
Epzicom (in USA) Kivexa (in Europe)	abacavir + lamivudine	August 2, 2004	GlaxoSmithKline
Truvada	tenofovir/emtricitabine	August 2, 2004	Gilead Sciences
Atripla	efavirenz + tenofovir/emtricitabine	July 12, 2006	Gilead Sciences and Bristol-Myers Squibb

Combivir

zidovudine + lamivudine

September 26, 1997

GlaxoSmithKline

Trizivir

abacavir + zidovudine + lamivudine

November 15, 2000

GlaxoSmithKline

Kaletra

lopinavir + ritonavir

September 15, 2000

Abbott Laboratories

Epzicom (in USA)
Kivexa (in Europe)

abacavir + lamivudine

August 2, 2004

GlaxoSmithKline

Truvada

tenofovir/emtricitabine

August 2, 2004

Gilead Sciences

Atripla

efavirenz + tenofovir/emtricitabine

July 12, 2006

Gilead Sciences and
Bristol-Myers Squibb

symptoms of ANEMIA

Anemia is defined as the condition of having a lower than normal number of red blood cells or less quantity of heamoglobin than normal

CAN ANEMIA BE HEREDITARY?

•  yes,anemia may be genetic hereditary disorder which can  shorten the               life span of the red blood cells and lead to anemia( sickle cell anemia)

HOW IS ANEMIA DIAGONISED?

• Anemia is usually detected or at least confirmed by a complete blood cell count and comparing the reports with standards which are as follows

            

Anemia condition	Hb levels
Normal condition	12.3-15.3g/dL
Mild anemia	10.0-11.9g/dL
Moderate anemia	7.0-9.9g/dL
Severe anemia	<7.0g/dL

WHAT ARE OTHER CAUSES OF ANEMIA?

• vit B12 deficiency can cause anemia
• blood loss which is main cause for women due to menstruation
• other causes include chronic diseases like AIDS,cancer etc...
•  pregnancy condition may also result in anemia because if the mother is not able to produce enough RBC for both herself & child then it may result in anemia

TREATMENT:   

• oral iron supplementation with ferrous sulphate, ferrous fumarate,(or) ferrousgluconate
• parentral iron when oral iron proves ineffective.the iron in parentral route can be given concurrently with ERYTHROPOIETIN
• Blood transfusion may also sometimes include treatment but not much recommended by physician
•  vitamin supplements given orally ( folicacid or intramuscular vit B12) will replace specific deficiencies

Anemia condition

Hb levels

Normal condition

12.3-15.3g/dL

Mild anemia

10.0-11.9g/dL

Moderate anemia

7.0-9.9g/dL

Severe anemia

<7.0g/dL

side effects of NICOTINE

NICOTINE is an known alkaloid used in preparation of cigarette due to its stimulant activity in mammals and acts as    agonist for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. and this activity is mainly responsible for its dependance forming activities.

• nicotine is mainly named after the plant NICOTIANA tabacum belongs to the family SOLANACEAE
• NICOTINE dependence can be reduced by using low dose nicotinic gums
• apart from these harmful effects some research studies reveal that usage of nicotine have reduced the chances for breast cancer
• recent studies in 2011 have found that nicotine inhibits CHROMATIN MODIFYING ENZYMES which increases the ability of coccaine to cause addiction
• the high usage of nicotine can lead the victim to fatal

side effects of OXYCODONE

• OXYCODONE is an analgesic medication
• it can also be used in treating severe diarrhea and in pain killing medication
• it has severe withdrawal effects so should be discontinued gradually rather than abruptly
• OXYCODONE and its metabolites are mainly excreted in the urine and sweat therefore it accumulates in  patients with renal impairment

OVERDOSE of OXYCODONE is very dangerous and leads to death immediate treatment for OXYCODONE poisoning is must which includes the following

• if the overdose was recent,a healthcare provider may "pump"the stomach, induce vomiting or administer activated charcoal to prevent the body from absorbing OXYCODONE
• An antidote like naloxone  or  narcan may be administered to counteract any overdose effects of oxycodone