EYE AND ITS DISEASES

 Human eye constitutes a major part of the human visual system.The visual system is the most complex sensory system in the human body .however it is the least mature system at birth. coming to the anatomy of eye it consists of various parts which combines to complete the function of eye. 

  According to the american academy of ophthalmology many sight-threatening diseases, if detected early can be cured (or) treated to prevent, or slow the progression of any vision loss, 

SOME OF THE EYE DISEASES ARE AS FOLLOWS

1.Age-Related macular Degeneration:

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a disease that damages the macula in the eye. Macula makes up only a small part of retina,but very sensitive than the rest.The loss of  central vision caused by AMD can make it hard to read, drive (or) recognizing faces.

                    

INTRODUCTION:                                                  There are two forms of AMD 1. DRY AMD causes a slow breakdown of light sensitive cells in the retina which is more common 2. WET AMD caused due to growth of abnormal blood vessels under retina which leaks blood fluid and cause scaring. SYMPTOMS: 1. Blurred vision 2. Wavy appearance  of straight lines 3. A dark patch in the middle of  words  as per lead 4. A worsening of  colour vision DIAGNOSIS: CAN  be diagnosed by pupil examination and  flourescein Angiography TREATMENT: 1. There is no particular treatment for DRY AMD which includes only the nutrient diet. 2. Medicines that shrink blood vessels can be used for wet AMD which are like Lucentis, macugen.

2.CATARACT:

   
        

INTRODUCTION : 1. A Cataract is a progressive clouding of the natural lens which blocks the light passing to the retina. 2. The lens is made mostly of water and proteins. Sometimes proteins clump together, clouding small areas of the lens and blocking some light from reaching the retina. This clouding is called CATARACT. CAUSES:    1.Age    2.Radiation 3.Exposure to light 4.Steroid intake 5.Systemic diseases (diabetes) 6.Injury to eye SYMPTOMS: 1.Cloudy or blurry vision 2.Difficulty in reading 3.Double or multiple vision 4.Poor night vision TREATMENT: “Surgery is the only treatment

AMBLYOPIA:

  

     

Introduction:  Amblyopia also known as lazy eye , is a vision development disorder in which an eye fails to achieve normal visual activity even with prescription. SYMPTOMS: 1. Eyes that turn in and out 2.eyes that don’t appear to work together 3.inability to judge depth correctly 4.poor vision in one eye DIAGNOSIS: Amblyopia is usually easily diagnosed with a complete examination of the eyes. Special tests are usually not needed. TREATMENT: 1.first an eye condition that is causing poor vision in the amblyopic eye needs to be corrected 2.children with refractive error will need glasses 3. Next a patch is placed on the normal eye. This forces the brain to recognize the image from the eye with amblyopia

INTRODUCTION:

                                                 There are two forms of AMD

1. DRY AMD causes a slow breakdown of light sensitive cells in the retina which is more common

2. WET AMD caused due to growth of abnormal blood vessels under retina which leaks blood fluid and cause scaring.

SYMPTOMS:

1. Blurred vision

2. Wavy appearance  of straight lines

3. A dark patch in the middle of  words  as per lead

4. A worsening of  colour vision

DIAGNOSIS:

CAN  be diagnosed by pupil examination and  flourescein

Angiography

TREATMENT:

1. There is no particular treatment for DRY AMD which includes only the nutrient diet.

2. Medicines that shrink blood vessels can be used for wet AMD which are like Lucentis, macugen.

INTRODUCTION :

1. A Cataract is a progressive clouding of the natural lens which blocks the light passing to the retina.

2. The lens is made mostly of water and proteins. Sometimes proteins clump together, clouding small areas of the lens and blocking some light from reaching the retina. This clouding is called CATARACT.

CAUSES:

   1.Age

   2.Radiation

3.Exposure to light

4.Steroid intake

5.Systemic diseases (diabetes)

6.Injury to eye

SYMPTOMS:

1.Cloudy or blurry vision

2.Difficulty in reading

3.Double or multiple vision

4.Poor night vision

TREATMENT:

“Surgery is the only treatment

Introduction:

 Amblyopia also known as lazy eye , is a vision development disorder in which an eye fails to achieve normal visual activity even with prescription.

SYMPTOMS:

1. Eyes that turn in and out

2.eyes that don’t appear to work together

3.inability to judge depth correctly

4.poor vision in one eye

DIAGNOSIS:

Amblyopia is usually easily diagnosed with a complete examination of the eyes. Special tests are usually not needed.

TREATMENT:

1.first an eye condition that is causing poor vision in the amblyopic eye needs to be corrected

2.children with refractive error will need glasses

3. Next a patch is placed on the normal eye. This forces the brain to recognize the image from the eye with amblyopia

MIGRAINE

Migraine headache is a form of vascular headache. migraine headache is caused by vasodilation(enlargement of blood vessels) that causes the release of chemicals from nerve fibers that coil arond the large arteries of the brain. enlargement of these blood vessels streches the nerves that coil around them and causes the nerves to release chemicals. these chemicals cause pain, inflammation and further enlargement of artery.

WHAT CAUSES MIGRAINE?

• Allergies and allergic reactions
• bright lights, loud noises
• physical (or) emotional stress
• smoking or exposure to smoke
• skipping meals or fasting
• alcohol
• food containing tyramine, mono sodium glutamate or nitrate

triggers always do not cause migraine& avoiding triggers does not always prevent migraines.

SYMPTOMS OF MIGRAINE:

Symptoms of migraine can occur a while before the headache, immediately before and during the headache

• sleepiness
• irritability
• fatigue
• depression or euphoria
• yawning
• craving for sweet or salty foods
• a temporary blind spot
• tunnel or blurred vision
• increased urination
• loss of appetite

which are clearly illustrated in this flow chart

DIAGNOSIS:

migraine headaches are usually diagnosed when the symptoms described previously are present

• there are no specific test to prove that your headache is actually a migraine. however doctor may order a brain MRI or CT SCAN. if you have never had one before or if you have usual symptoms with your migraine.

TREATMENT:

There are two types of therapies for treatment 

1. NON-Medication therapy
2. Medication therapy

NON-Medication therapy:

• using ice, biofeedback, and relaxation techniques may be helpful in stopping an attack once it has started
• sleep may be the best medicine if it is

 MEDICATION THERAPY:

IF you have frequent migraines your doctor may prescribe medicine to reduce the number of attacks, you need to take the medicine every day for it to be effective. some of the remedy therapies are illustrated by this image

• Antidepressants such as amitriptylline or venlafaxine
• blood pressure medicines such as propranolol & verapamil
• seizure medicines such as valproic acid, gabapentin, & tropiramate
• acetaminophen is given as it reduces pain & fever by acting on pain centers in the brain
• NSAIDS like ibuprofen & aspirin can also act effective but aspirin is not always recommended.

HOME REMEDY FOR MIGRAINE RELIEF:

• Aromatherapy is considered to be one of the best migraine relief which includes aroma of peppermint,lavender& eucalyptus
• you can prepare a juice that include spinach,beetroot,cucumber which is effective in migraine relief
• try to include the diet containing multivitamins and some detoxifiers like garlic
• use of sandalwood paste on forehead may also act effective in migraine relief.
• juice of ripe grapes serves as one of the excellent home remedies for migraine

MENINGITIS

Meningitis is the inflammation of the coverings around the brain and  spinal cord.It is mainly caused due to bacterial and viral infections thus the meningitis is of two types  

• Viral meningitis fairly common
• Bacterial meningitis which is not common but very severe

CAUSES FOR MENINGITIS?

• May be caused by virus, bacteria, other organisms and due to some medicines which is very rare
• The germs that cause meningitis can be spread from person to person

SYMPTOMS:

• A stiff and painful neck
• fever
• headache
• vomiting
• seizures
• photo phobia (intolerance to bright light)
• phonophobia (intolerance to loud noises)

HOW IT IS DIAGONISED
FOR  any patient who is suspected of having meningitis ,it is important to perform a lumbar puncture, in which spinal fluid known as CSF is collected for testing. Tests that may be done include

• Blood culture
• chest X-Ray
• CSF examination for cell count,glucose,and protiens
• CT scan of head
• Gram stain

TREATMENT
Bacterial or severe viral meningitis may require treatment in a hospital including

• ANTIBIOTICS are given through vein but only when it is Bacterial meningitis else the usage of antibiotics when they are not needed may cause drug resistance
• CORTICOSTEROIDS medicines such as  dexamethasone may be given in order to reduce pressure within the brain
• Measures such as ACETAMINOPHEN is given in order to reduce fever
• medicines such as PHENOBARBITAL OR DILANTIN can be given to reduce seizures
• Oxygen Therapy may be given if the patient have trouble breathing and to increase the amount of oxygen in all parts of the body

HIV/ AIDS

Human Immuno Deficiency virus infection/ acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/ AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by Human Immunodeficiency virus(HIV)

TRANSMISSION:

• HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated blood transfusion and hypodermic needles,and from mother to child during pregnancy,delivery or breast feeding
• some body fluids such as saliva and tears do not transmit HIV
• prevention of HIV infection primarily through safe sex and needle exchange programs is a key strategy to control the disease

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY:

• The PATHOPHYSIOLOGY of aids is complex.
• ultimately HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4+ T cells.
• This weakens the immune system and allows opportunistic infection(infections caused by pathogens).
• Tcells are essential to the immune response and without them the body cannot fight infections (or) kill cancerous cells.
• thus weakening of CD4 T cells mainly includes the function of HIV virus

DIAGNOSIS:

HIV infection is commonly diagnosed by blood tests. there are three main types of tests that are commonly used

1. HIV antibody test
2. RNA tests
3. combination test that detects both antibodies and a piece of the virus called P24 protien

These are the referred symptoms for aids and the details are as follows:

• ENCEPHALITIS is an acute inflammation of brain which can be observed by noticing the patient in a confused state and can be diagnosed by testing the brain
• MENINGITIS is the inflammation of the protective membranes of brain and spinal cord
• RETINITIS is the viral infection of retina which results in blurred vision and blindness
• PNEUMOCYSTIS pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by yeast like fungus and mostly effects the condition of lungs
• esophagitis is the infection of esophagus

The most commonly used medication for aids is

Brand Name	Drug Names (INN)	Date of FDA Approval	Company
Combivir	zidovudine + lamivudine	September 26, 1997	GlaxoSmithKline
Trizivir	abacavir + zidovudine + lamivudine	November 15, 2000	GlaxoSmithKline
Kaletra	lopinavir + ritonavir	September 15, 2000	Abbott Laboratories
Epzicom (in USA) Kivexa (in Europe)	abacavir + lamivudine	August 2, 2004	GlaxoSmithKline
Truvada	tenofovir/emtricitabine	August 2, 2004	Gilead Sciences
Atripla	efavirenz + tenofovir/emtricitabine	July 12, 2006	Gilead Sciences and Bristol-Myers Squibb

Combivir

zidovudine + lamivudine

September 26, 1997

GlaxoSmithKline

Trizivir

abacavir + zidovudine + lamivudine

November 15, 2000

GlaxoSmithKline

Kaletra

lopinavir + ritonavir

September 15, 2000

Abbott Laboratories

Epzicom (in USA)
Kivexa (in Europe)

abacavir + lamivudine

August 2, 2004

GlaxoSmithKline

Truvada

tenofovir/emtricitabine

August 2, 2004

Gilead Sciences

Atripla

efavirenz + tenofovir/emtricitabine

July 12, 2006

Gilead Sciences and
Bristol-Myers Squibb

symptoms of ANEMIA

Anemia is defined as the condition of having a lower than normal number of red blood cells or less quantity of heamoglobin than normal

CAN ANEMIA BE HEREDITARY?

•  yes,anemia may be genetic hereditary disorder which can  shorten the               life span of the red blood cells and lead to anemia( sickle cell anemia)

HOW IS ANEMIA DIAGONISED?

• Anemia is usually detected or at least confirmed by a complete blood cell count and comparing the reports with standards which are as follows

            

Anemia condition	Hb levels
Normal condition	12.3-15.3g/dL
Mild anemia	10.0-11.9g/dL
Moderate anemia	7.0-9.9g/dL
Severe anemia	<7.0g/dL

WHAT ARE OTHER CAUSES OF ANEMIA?

• vit B12 deficiency can cause anemia
• blood loss which is main cause for women due to menstruation
• other causes include chronic diseases like AIDS,cancer etc...
•  pregnancy condition may also result in anemia because if the mother is not able to produce enough RBC for both herself & child then it may result in anemia

TREATMENT:   

• oral iron supplementation with ferrous sulphate, ferrous fumarate,(or) ferrousgluconate
• parentral iron when oral iron proves ineffective.the iron in parentral route can be given concurrently with ERYTHROPOIETIN
• Blood transfusion may also sometimes include treatment but not much recommended by physician
•  vitamin supplements given orally ( folicacid or intramuscular vit B12) will replace specific deficiencies

Anemia condition

Hb levels

Normal condition

12.3-15.3g/dL

Mild anemia

10.0-11.9g/dL

Moderate anemia

7.0-9.9g/dL

Severe anemia

<7.0g/dL

side effects of NICOTINE

NICOTINE is an known alkaloid used in preparation of cigarette due to its stimulant activity in mammals and acts as    agonist for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. and this activity is mainly responsible for its dependance forming activities.

• nicotine is mainly named after the plant NICOTIANA tabacum belongs to the family SOLANACEAE
• NICOTINE dependence can be reduced by using low dose nicotinic gums
• apart from these harmful effects some research studies reveal that usage of nicotine have reduced the chances for breast cancer
• recent studies in 2011 have found that nicotine inhibits CHROMATIN MODIFYING ENZYMES which increases the ability of coccaine to cause addiction
• the high usage of nicotine can lead the victim to fatal

side effects of OXYCODONE

• OXYCODONE is an analgesic medication
• it can also be used in treating severe diarrhea and in pain killing medication
• it has severe withdrawal effects so should be discontinued gradually rather than abruptly
• OXYCODONE and its metabolites are mainly excreted in the urine and sweat therefore it accumulates in  patients with renal impairment

OVERDOSE of OXYCODONE is very dangerous and leads to death immediate treatment for OXYCODONE poisoning is must which includes the following

• if the overdose was recent,a healthcare provider may "pump"the stomach, induce vomiting or administer activated charcoal to prevent the body from absorbing OXYCODONE
• An antidote like naloxone  or  narcan may be administered to counteract any overdose effects of oxycodone